10 TIPS HIDUP SEHAT DENGAN ALAMI

1. Kenali diri Anda, baik fisik maupun kejiwaan
Ini agak filosofis, memang, tetapi sebenarnya justru di sini letak kunci segalanya. Dengan mengenali diri sendiri, kita dapat mengetahui kelemahan fisik tubuh kita, lalu dapat memutuskan apa yang baik dan boleh dilakukan bagi tubuh, dan apa yang tidak. Orang yang tanpa disadari telah keenakan menyantap makanan yang asin secara berlebihan, misalnya, lama-kelamaan merasakan tubuhnya berubah, seperti cepat merasa pusing, berkurang keseimbangan tubuhnya, dan sering merasakan aneka gejala tidak enak badan. Setelah memeriksakan badan ke dokter, baru diketahui tubuhnya mulai mengidap “penyakit” tekanan darah tinggi. Kalau sejak itu ia berusaha sungguh-sungguh untuk mengurangi makanan asin dan berlemak, sambil melakukan olahraga ringan secara teratur, maka “penyakit”-nya tidak mudah kumat, dan ia tidak perlu sering pergi ke dokter lagi.
Bila Anda mempunyai keluhan seperti itu, seyogianyalah mencontoh orang yang mengenal kelemahan dirinya sendiri itu. Begitu juga orang yang mudah marah dan sukar mengendalikan diri karena tidak mengenal kekurangan dirinya sendiri. Setelah mengenal kelemahannya, dan mau memperbaiki kebiasaannya yang merugikan, lama-lama ia mahir menjaga agar tidak mudah terpancing emosinya. Itu berkat ia berusaha mengenal dirinya sendiri juga.

2. Tidak terburu-buru merasa sakit
Hanya karena bersin, batuk, atau agak demam, orang telah memutuskan untuk minum obat. Padahal acap kali setelah dibiarkan tiga hari, gejala sakit itu hilang sendiri. Tubuh memang mempunyai kemampuan untuk menyembuhkan sendiri. Hanya dengan beristirahat cukup, gejala sakit itu sudah hilang sendiri. Gejala pusing kadang bahkan dapat hilang hanya karena menghirup udara segar di taman yang tidak tercemar udara knalpot.
Gejala batuk dan bersin memang merupakan tanda serius juga, bahwa tubuh sedang berusaha mengeluarkan kuman penyakit dari saluran pernapasan. Demam berkeringat merupakan tanda tubuh sedang melawan serangan kuman. Kalau gejala itu berlangsung selama tiga hari, karena beratnya serangan, ya apa boleh buat, kita ke dokter untuk konsultasi medis.

3. Mengusahakan variasi makanan sehari-hari
Melakukan variasi santapan, berangkat dari asumsi bahwa ada bahan makanan tertentu yang lebih bermanfaat daripada jenis makanan biasa sehari-hari. Kalau ini kita pakai sebagai selingan bagi jenis makanan sehari-hari, maka kedua kelompok bahan itu dapat saling melengkapi. Bila kita terbiasa makan daging ayam dan sapi, sebaiknya mengubah kebiasaan itu, dan sekali-sekali makan ikan segar, tempe, dan tahu sebagai selingan. Bahan ini mempunyai kadar lemak tak jenuh yang banyak, dan berpotensi mengurangi risiko tekanan darah tinggi. Sebaliknya, kalau kita terbiasa makan ikan, tempe, dan tahu telur saja sehari-hari, pada suatu kesempatan makan santapan istimewa pada kondangan temanten, atau arisan keluarga besar, ambil saja daging ayam atau sapi. Protein daging hewan berperan mempertahankan laju pertumbuhan tubuh dan mengganti sel-sel jaringan yang rusak.
Begitu juga dengan sayuran. Kalau hari demi hari kita makan sayur mayur hijau, karena beranggapan bahwa yang serba hijau itu pasti bagus, sesekali perlu variasi menyantap sayuran dan buah-buahan tidak hijau, seperti tomat, wortel, jagung muda, paprika merah (sebagai sayur), pisang, mangga, apel, jeruk (sebagai pencuci mulut).

4. Menyesuaikan konsumsi dengan tingkatan umur
Jumlah zat gizi yang diperlukan tubuh berbeda-beda bergantung pada umur, jenis kegiatan, dan kondisi tubuh (dalam keadaan sakit atau sehat). Pada anak-anak dan remaja yang sedang giat-giatnya tumbuh, kelima unsur dalam makanan (karbohidrat, protein, lemak, vitamin dan mineral, serta air) sangat diperlukan, sehingga tidak perlu dibatasi. Sebaliknya, pada orang dewasa dan lanjut usia, pembatasan itu mutlak perlu. Karbohidrat dan lemak sebagai penghasil energi harus dikurangi jumlahnya, mengingat kegiatan fisik mereka sudah menurun. Cara mengurangi karbohidrat dan lemak ialah dengan mengurangi porsi nasi dan goreng-gorengan. Sebaliknya, vitamin dan mineral serta air justru harus dimakan dengan cukup. Zat-zat ini sangat perlu untuk memperlancar metabolisme dalam tubuh, dan meningkatkan daya tahannya. Hanya perlu diingat bahwa yang paling baik ialah memakai vitamin alamiah, seperti yang terkandung dalam buah dan sayuran segar. Sedangkan air yang diminum harus yang steril, aman dari kuman, seperti air mineral yang benar memenuhi syarat sebagai air mineral. Boleh juga air biasa yang selalu sudah direbus lebih dulu. Lebih kurang 60% dari bobot badan kita berupa air atau cairan. Itu berarti kita harus minum air lebih banyak daripada unsur makanan yang lain. Orang yang sedang sakit dan terpaksa minum obat, malah harus minum air lebih banyak lagi. Penderita “penyakit” sulit buang air, bisa tertolong dari penderitaannya dengan setiap hari minum 2 - 3 gelas air putih sebelum pergi ke belakang.

Konsumsi protein pada orang dewasa dan lansia juga perlu dikurangi, meskipun tidak sebanyak pengurangan karbohidrat dan lemak. Cara mengurangi protein ini ialah dengan mengganti menu makanan sumber protein hewani dengan makanan sumber protein nabati, yang kadar proteinnya kurang atau hanya sedikit. Misalnya, kacang-kacangan, tahu, dan tempe.

5. Berolahraga secara teratur sesuai kemampuan
Berolahraga bertujuan memperlancar peredaran darah, dan mempercepat penyebaran impuls urat saraf ke bagian tubuh atau sebaliknya, sehingga tubuh senantiasa bugar. Banyak orang berpendapat, tanpa olahraga pun kita sebenarnya juga sudah bergerak badan mirip olahraga, kalau melakukan pekerjaan fisik sehari-hari seperti menyapu lantai, membersihkan rumah, mencuci, dan menjemur pakaian. Tetapi apakah “olahraga” semacam ini dapat kita lakukan secara teratur dan berkesinambungan? Itu masalah tersendiri! Diperlukan kemauan yang kuat, berdasarkan keyakinan bahwa olahraga itu mutlak perlu agar badan tetap bugar, karena peredaran darah diperlancar tadi. Pada gilirannya ini dapat meningkatkan kekebalan tubuh. Para penderita tekanan darah tinggi, penyakit jantung, infeksi paru-paru, dan kencing manis, hendaknya berkonsultasi ke dokter dulu untuk mengetahui jenis olahraga apa yang cocok. Biasanya olahraga yang intensitasnya rendah dan dilakukan tidak terlalu lama.
Orang normal yang tidak mengidap penyakit, sangat baik memilih olahraga yang kapasitas aerobiknya tinggi seperti renang, aerobik yang high impact, naik sepeda stasioner, dan joging.

6. Selalu menjaga kebersihan
Lingkungan bersih di rumah, halaman, dan kompleks hunian memberi suasana segar dan nyaman. Sebuah penelitian di Amerika Serikat menunjukkan bahwa kelompok rumah yang mempunyai halaman dan lingkungan tertata baik, hijau, dan asri, mempunyai persentase kesehatan penghuninya jauh lebih baik daripada kelompok rumah miskin tanaman.
Lingkungan bersih membuat tubuh kita juga bersih, baik jasmani maupun rohani. Kondisi ini mampu mencegah penyakit jasmani seperti infeksi kulit, alergi debu, flu, bronkitis, dan “penyakit” rohani seperti stres, frustrasi dan depresi, biang kerok menurunnya sistem kekebalan tubuh.

7. Meluangkan waktu untuk bersantai
Meluangkan waktu tidak berarti minta istirahat lebih banyak daripada bekerja produktif sampai melebihi kepatutan. Tidak! Meluangkan waktu untuk istirahat itu sebentar saja, dan ini perlu, untuk setel kendo sejenak di antara ketegangan jam sibuk bekerja sehari-hari. Ini perlu dilakukan secara rutin. Bersantai juga tidak berarti harus melakukan rekreasi yang melelahkan, tetapi cukup berkumpul membicarakan masalah keseharian dengan rekan sekantor, tetangga atau keluarga di rumah. Bukan tidak mungkin, mereka dapat membantu memecahkan masalah, atau setidak-tidaknya meringankan beban pikiran. Bersantai seorang diri dengan merenung dan mawas diri juga perlu. Makin sering dan rutin ini dilakukan, makin bagus keseimbangan jiwa kita. Tidur nyaman juga bentuk bersantai seorang diri. Stamina akan pulih dengan cepat, dan keseimbangan hormon dalam tubuh juga cepat tercapai.
Tubuh letih dan pikiran kusut kalau dibiarkan berkepanjangan (sampai dibawa ke kamar tidur), akan menurunkan daya kerja sistem kekebalan tubuh. Pada gilirannya memudahkan serangan penyakit.

8. Back to nature
Trend pada awal dekade 1990-an di negeri Barat ini dilandasi pengalaman bahwa gaya hidup pada zaman modern mendorong orang mengubah kebiasaan makan, seperti misalnya lebih sering menyantap makanan kalengan, sambal botolan, atau buah awetan. Juga jarang bergerak badan karena kemudahan memakai alat bantu rumah tangga, seperti mencuci pakaian dengan mesin cuci, menyapu lantai dengan penyedot debu, bepergian dengan kendaraan, padahal cuma dekat dan lebih sehat dilakukan dengan jalan kaki. Tubuh kita jadi manja, karena jarang bergerak, sehingga mudah sakit karena lembek. Sebaliknya, seorang pendekar silat, walaupun hidup di tengah zaman modern, selalu sehat tubuhnya karena masih sering berjalan kaki, latihan rutin dengan menggerakkan badan, dan tidak memakai alat bantu hasil teknologi modern yang membuat orang jadi lembek.
Untuk kembali dekat dengan alam, kita bukannya harus ikut menjadi pendekar silat, tetapi setidak-tidaknya menghindari bahan makanan kalengan, dan malah memperbanyak makan sayuran dan buah yang segar.

9. Mengolah pernapasan
Mengolah pernapasan berarti mengatur cara dan frekuensi bernapas agar lebih efisien. Dengan menghirup udara (oksigen) perlahan-lahan dalam hitungan 15 kemudian melepaskannya kembali pelan-pelan juga dalam hitungan 15, kita bisa menahan oksigen dalam badan lebih lama daripada biasanya. Oksigen akan dipakai oleh organ tubuh secara efektif, walaupun jumlahnya cuma sedikit. Selama ini kita bernapas dengan frekuensi yang tidak teratur. Kadang lambat, kadang cepat. Oksigen yang diirup juga cepat keluar lagi. Belum sampai dimanfaatkan dengan baik, sudah keburu keluar. Dalam satu menit kita benapas lima kali atau lebih.




10. Menggemari bacaan kesehata
Ungkapan “Tak kenal maka tak sayang, tak sayang maka tak cinta” sangat pas untuk menyindir orang yang ingin tubuhnya sehat, tetapi tidak mau bersusah payah mendekati bacaan tentang kesehatan. Kalau dekat, kita akan tahu seluk-beluk kesehatan itu lebih baik, dan kemudian dapat memakainya untuk menyusun siasat menghindari gangguan penyakit.
Semoga tips sehat ini dapat membantu anda semua dalam menjaga kesehatan.

keanehan pola pikir manusia jaman sekarang ini

Sesungguhnya keajaiban manusia di akhir
zaman ini sangat banyak dan nyata sekali. Terkadang kita kurang jeli
memperhatikannya sehingga terlihat dunia ini berjalan baik-baik saja.
Namun, bila kita cermati dengan baik, kita akan menemukan segudang
keajaiban dan keanehan dalam kehidupan manusia akhir zaman dan hampir
dalam semua lini kehidupan. Keajaiban yang kita maksudkan di sini bukan
terkait dengan persitiwa alam seperti gempa bumi, tsunami dan
sebagainya, atau kejadian yang aneh-aneh lainnya, melainkan pola fikir
manusia yang paradoks yang berkembang biak di akhir zaman ini.

Berikut
ini adalah sebagian kecil dari berfikir paradoks yang berkembang
akhir-akhir ini dalam masyarakat luas. Lebih ajaib lagi, berfikir
paradoks tersebut malah dimiliki pula oleh sebagian umat Islam dan para
tokoh mereka.

Di antaranya :

Bila seorang pengusaha atau
pejabat tinggi melakukan korupsi milyaran dan bahkan triliunan rupiah,
maka aparat penegak hukum dengan mudah mengatakan tidak ada bukti untuk
menahan dan mengadilinya.

Namun, bila yang mencuri itu seorang
nenek atau masyarakat bawah (lemah), dengan mudah dapat ditangkap,
disidangkan dan diputuskan hukuman penjara, kendati mereka mengambil
hanya satu buah semangka atau tiga buah kakau, mungkin saja karena
lapar.

Bila ada orang atau kelompok dengan nyata-nyata merusak
dan melecehkan ajaran Islam yang sangat fundamental, seperti Tuhan,
Kitab Suci dan Rasulnya, di negeri-negeri Islam, maka orang dengan
gampang mengatakan yang demikian itu adalah kebebasan berpendapat,
berekspresi dan menafsirkan agama.

Namun, bila ada khatib,
ustazd atau masyarakat Muslim mengajak jamaah dan umat Islam untuk
konsiten dengan ajaran agamanya, maka orang dengan mudah menuduhnya
sebabai khatib, penceramah atau ustazd yang keras dan tidak bisa
berdakwah dengan hikmah, bahkan perlu dicurigai sebagai calon teroris.

Apa
saja yang dituliskan dalam koran, dengan mudah orang mempercayainya,
kendati itu hanya tulisan manusia dan belum teruji kebenarannya.
Membaca dan mempelajarinya dianggap lambang kemajuan.

Akan
tetapi, apa yang tercantum dalam Al-Qur’an belum tentu dipercayai dan
diyakini kebenarannya, kendati mengaku sebagai Muslim. Padahal
Al-Qur’an itu Kalamullah (Ucapan Allah) yang mustahil berbohong.
Kebenarannya sudah teruji sepnajang masa dari berbagai sisi ilmu
pengetahuan. Akhir-akhir ini muncul anggapan mengajarkan Al-Qur’an bisa
mengajarkan paham terorisme.

Tidak sedikit manusia, termasuk
yang mengaku Muslim yakin dan bangga dengan sistem hidup ciptaan
manusia (jahiliyah), kendati sistem yang mereka yakini dan banggakan
itu menyebabkan hidup mereka kacau dan mereka selalu menghadapai
berbagai kezaliman dan ketidak adilan dari para penguasa negeri mereka.
Mereka masih saja mengklaim : inilah jalan hidup yang sesuai dengan
akhir zaman.

Namun, bila ada yang mengajak dan menyeru untuk
kembali kepada hukum Islam, maka orang akan menuduh ajakan dan seruan
itu akan membawa kepada keterbelakangan, kekerasan dan terorisme,
padahal mereka tahu bahwa Islam itu diciptakan oleh Tuhan Pencipta
mereka (Allah) untuk keselamatan dunia dan akhirat dan Allah itu
mustahil keliru dan menzalimi hamba-Nya.

Ketika seorang Yahudi atau agama lain memanjangkan jenggotnya, orang akan mengatakan dia sedang menjalankan ajaran agamanya.

Namun,
saat seorang Muslim memelihara jenggotnya, dengan mudah orang
menuduhnya fundamentalis atau teroris yang selalu harus dicurigai,
khususnya saat masuk ke tempat-tempat umum seperti hotel dan sebagainya.

Ketika
seorang Biarawati memakai pakaian yang menutup kepala dan tubuhnya
dengan rapih, orang akan mengatakan bahwa sang Biarawati telah
menghadiahkan dirinya untuk Tuhan-nya.

Namun, bila wanita
Muslimah menutup auratnya dengan jilbab atau hijab, maka orang akan
menuduh mereka terbelakang dan tidak sesuai dengan zaman, padahal
mereka yang menuduh itu, para penganut paham demokrasi, yang katanya
setiap orang bebas menjalankan keyakinan masing-masing.

Bila
wanita Barat tinggal di rumah dan tidak bekerja di luar karena menjaga,
merawat rumah dan mendidik anaknya, maka orang akan memujinya karena ia
rela berkorban dan tidak bekerja di luar rumah demi kepentingan rumah
tangga dan keluarganya.

Namun, bila wanita Muslimah tingal di
rumah menjaga harta suami, merawat dan mendidik anaknya, maka orang
akan menuduhnya terjajah dan harus dimerdekakan dari dominasi kaum pria
atau apa yang sering mereka katakan dengan kesetaraan gender.

Setiap
mahasiswi Barat bebas ke kampus dengan berbagai atribut hiasan dan
pakaian yang disukainya, dengan alasan itu adalah hak asasi mereka dan
kemerdekaan mengekpresikan diri.

Namun, bila wanita Muslimah ke
kampus atau ke tempat kerja dengan memakai pakaian Islaminya, maka
orang akan menuduhnya eksklusif dan berfikiran sempit tidak sesuai
dengan peraturan dan paradigma kampus atau tempat kerja mereka.

Bila
anak-anak mereka sibuk dengan berbagai macam mainan yang mereka
ciptakan, mereka akan mengatakan ini adalah pembinaan bakat, kecerdasan
dan kreativitas sang anak.

Namun, bila anak Muslim dibiasakan
mengikuti pendidikan praktis agamanya, maka orang akan mengatakan bahwa
pola pendidikan seperti itu tidak punya harapan dan masa depan.

Ketika
Yahudi atau Nasrani membunuh seseorang, atau melakukan agresi ke negeri
Islam khususnya di Paestina, Afghanistan, Irak dan sebagainya, tidak
ada yang mengaitkannya dengan agama mereka. Bahkan mereka mengakatakan
itu adalah hak mereka dan demi menyelamatkan masyarakat Muslim di sana.

Akan
tetapi, bila kaum Muslim melawan agresi Yahudi atas Palestina, atau
Amerika Kristen di Irak dan Afghanistan, mereka pasti mengaitkannya
dengan Islam dan menuduh kaum Muslim tersebut sebagai pemberontak dan
teroris .

Bila seseorang mengorbankan dirinya untuk
menyelamatkan orang lain, maka semua orang akan memujinya dan berhak
mendapatkan penghormatan.

Namun, bila orang Palestina melakukan
hal yang sama untuk menyelamatkan anaknya, saudaranya atau orang tuanya
dari penculikan dan pembantaian tentara Israel, atau menyelamatkan
rumahnya dari kehancuran serangan roket-roket Israel, atau
memperjuangkan masjid dan kitab sucinya dari penodaan pasukan Yahudi,
orang akan menuduhnya TERORIS. Kenapa? Karena dia adalah seorang Muslim.

Bila
anak-anak Yahudi diajarkan perang dan senjata otomatis untuk membunuh
kaum Muslimin Palestina, maka orang akan menegatakan bahwa apa yang
mereka lakukan itu adalah upaya membela diri kendati mereka adalah
agresor.

Namun, bila anak Palestina belajar melemparkan batu
menghadapi prajurit Yahudi yang dilengakapi dengan tank dan senjata
canggih lainhya saat menghancurkan rumah, masjid dan kampung mereka,
maka orang akan menuduh mereka sebagai pelaku kejahatan yang pantas
ditangkap, dipatahkan tangannya dan dipenjarakan belasan tahun.

Nah,
inilah sekelumit keajaiaban manusia di akhir zaman ini. Bisakah kita
mendapatkan pelajaran yang baik sehingga dapat menentukan sikap yang
benar, atau kita akan jatuh menjadi korban keajaiban akhir zaman?

Sholat untuk pengobatan dan kesehatan

Selain melaksanakan perintah agama, mengobati kerinduan jiwa pada sang Pencipta, sholat juga punya efek yaitu menyehatkan tubuh. Seorang pakar ilmu pengobatan tradisional, Prof H Muhammad Hembing Wijayakusuma, telah melakukan penelitian yang mendalam tentang hal itu. Hasil penelitian itu disebarkannya kepada umat Islam, baik melalui media massa maupun buku yang berjudul “Hikmah Sholat untuk Pengobatan dan Kesehatan”. Bahkan, duduk Tasyahud diyakini bisa menyembuhkan penyakit tanpa operasi.

Apa hubungan sholat dengan kesehatan ? menurut Hembing, setiap gerakan-gerakan shalat mempunyai arti khusus bagi kesehatan dan punya pengaruh pada bagian-bagian tubuh seperti kaki, ruas tulang punggung, otak, lambung, rongga dada, pangkal paha, leher, dll. Berikut adalah ringkasan yang bermanfaat untuk mengetahui tentang daya penyembuhan di balik pelaksanaan sholat sebagai aktivitas spiritual.

Berdiri tegak dalam sholat

Gerakan-gerakan sholat bila dilakukan dengan benar, selain menjadi latihan yang menyehatkan juga mampu mencegah dan meyembuhkan berbagai macam penyakit. Hembing menemukan bahwa berdiri tegak pada waktu sholat membuat seluruh saraf menjadi satu titik pusat pada otak, jantung, paru-paru, pinggang, dan tulang pungggung lurus dan bekerja secara normal, kedua kaki yang tegak lurus pada posisi akupuntur, sangat bermanfaat bagi kesehatan seluruh tubuh.

Rukuk

Rukuk juga sangat baik untuk menghindari penyakit yang menyerang ruas tulang belakang yang terdiri dari tulang punggung, tulang leher, tulang pinggang dan ruas tulang tungging. Dengan melakukan rukuk, kita telah menarik, menggerakan dan mengendurkan saraf-saraf yang berada di otak, punggung dan lain-lain. Bayangkan bila kita menjalankan sholat lima waktu yang berjumlah 17 rakaat sehari semalam. Kalau rakaat kita rukuk satu kali, berarti kita melakukan gerakan ini sebanyak 17 kali.

Sujud

Belum lagi gerakan sujud yang setiap rakaat dua kali hingga junlahnya sehari 34 kali. Bersujud dengan meletakan jari-jari tangan di depan lutut membuat semua otot berkontraksi. Gerakan ini bukan saja membuat otot-otot itu akan menjadi besar dan kuat, tetapi juga membuat pembuluh darah dan urat-urat getah bening terpijat dan terurut. Posisi sujud ini juga sangat membantu kerja jantung dan menghindari mengerutnya dinding-dinding pembuluh darah.

Duduk tasyahud

Duduk tasyahud akhir atau tawaruk adalah salah satu anugerah Allah yang patut kita syukuri, karena sikap itu merupakan penyembuhan penyakit tanpa obat dan tanpa operasi. Posisi duduk dengan mengangkat kaki kanan dan menghadap jari-jari ke arah kiblat ini, secara otomatis memijat pusat-pusat daerah otak, ruas tulang punggung teratas, mata, otot-otot bahu, dan banyak lagi terdapat pada ujung kaki. Untuk laki-laki sikap duduk ini luar biasa manfaatnya, terutama untuk kesehatan dan kekuatan organ seks.

Salam

Bahkan, gerakan salam akhir, berpaling ke kanan dan ke kiri pun, menurut penelitian Hembing punya manfaat besar karena gerakan ini sangat bermanfaat membantu  menguatkan otot-otot leher dan kepala. Setiap mukmin pasti bisa merasakan itu, bila ia menjalankan sholat dengan benar.  Tubuh akan terasa lebih segar, sendi-sendi dan otot akan terasa lebih kendur, dan otak juga mempu kembali berfikir dengan terang. Hanya saja, manfaat itu ada yang bisa merasakannya dengan sadar, ada juga yang tak disadari. Tapi harus diingat, sholat adalah ibadah agama bukan olahraga.

Tahajjud = Anti kanker

Sebuah penelitian ilmiah yang lain membuktikan bahwa sholat tahajjud membebaskan seseorang dari pelbagai penyakit. Itu bukan ungkapan teoritis semata, melainkan sudah diuji dan dibuktikan melalui penelitian ilmiah. Penelitinya adalah dosen fakultas Tarbiyah IAIN Sunan Ampel Surabaya, Mohammad Sholeh, dalam usahanya meraih gelar doktor. Sholeh melakukan penelitian terhadap siswa SMU Lukmanul Hakim Pondok Pesantren Hidayatullah Surabaya yang secara rutin menunaikkan sholat tahajjud.

Sholat tahajjud yang dilakukan di penghujung malam yang sunyi, kata sholeh, bisa mendatangkan ketenangan. Sementara ketenangan itu sendiri terbukti  mampu meningkatkan ketahanan tubuh imunologik, mengurangi resiko terkena penyakit jantung dan meningkatkan usia harapan hidup. Sebaliknya, bentuk-bentuk tekanan mental sepert stress maupun depresi membuat seseorang rentan terhadap berbagai macam penyakit, infeksi dan mempercepat perkembangan sel kanker serta meningkatkan metastatis (penyebarab sel kanker).

Tekanan mental itu sendiri terjadi akibat gangguan irama sirkadian (siklus gerak hidup manusia) yang ditandai dengan pengikatan hormon kortison. Perlu diketahui, hormon kortison ini biasa dipakai sebagai tolak ukur untuk mengetahui kondisi seseorang apakah jiwanya tengah terserang stress, depressi atau tidak.

Untungnya, kata Sholeh, stress bisa dikelola, dan pengelolaan itu bisa dilakukan dengfan eduikatif, cara teknis relaksasi, atau perenungan / tafakur dan umpan balik hayati (bio feed back). Nah, sholat tahajjud mengandung aspek meditasi dan relaksasi sehingga dapat digunakan sebagai pereda stress yang akan meningkatkan ketahanan tubuh seseorang secar natural, jelas sholeh dalam disertainya yang berjudul “Pengaruh Sholat Tahajjjud terhadap Pengingkatan Perubahan Respon Ketahanan Tubuh Imunologik”.

Pada saat yang sama, sholat tahajjjud pun bisa mendatangkan stress, terutam bila tidak dilaksanakan secara ikhlas dan kontinyu karena akan terjadi kegagalan dalan menjaga Homeostatis (daya adaptasi) terhadap perubahan pola irama pertumbuhan sel yang normal, tetapi jika dilaksanakan dengan iklas dan kontintyu akan sebaliknya. Kanker, seperti diketahui, adalah pertumbuhan sel yang tidak normal, kalau melaksanakan sholat tahajjud dengan ihklas dan kontinyu akan dapat merangsang pertumbuhan sel secara normal sehingga membebaskan pengamal sholat tahajjud dari berbagai penyakit dan kanker (tumor ganas), ungkap alumni pesantren lirboyo kediri Jatim ini.

Menurutnya, sholat tahajjud yang dijalankan dengan tepat, kontinyum khusuh, dan ikhlas dapat menimbulkan persepsi dan motivasi positif sehingga menimbulkan mekanisme pereda stress yang efektif.

Indonesia

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Republic of Indonesia Republik Indonesia
Flag Coat of arms
Motto: Bhinneka Tunggal Ika  (Old Javanese) Unity in Diversity National ideology: Pancasila[1]
Anthem: Indonesia Raya
Capital (and largest city)		Jakarta 6°10.5′S 106°49.7′E / 6.175°S 106.8283°E / -6.175; 106.8283
Official language(s)		Indonesian
Demonym		Indonesian
Government		Unitary presidential republic
-	President	Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono
-	Vice President	Boediono
Independence		following Dutch colonial rule
-	Declared	17 August 1945
-	Acknowledged	27 December 1949
Area
-	Land	1,919,440 km2 (16th) 735,355 sq mi
-	Water (%)	4.85
Population
-	2009 estimate	238,000,000[2] (4th)
-	2010 census	237,556,363[3]
-	Density	123.76/km2 (84th) 323.05/sq mi
GDP (PPP)		2010 estimate
-	Total	$1.027 trillion[4]
-	Per capita	$4,379[4]
GDP (nominal)		2010 estimate
-	Total	$670.421 billion[4]
-	Per capita	$2,858[4]
Gini (2002)		34.3
HDI (2007)		0.600[5] (medium) (108th)
Currency		Rupiah (IDR)
Time zone		various (UTC+7 to +9)
-	Summer (DST)	not observed (UTC)
Drives on the		Left
ISO 3166 code		ID
Internet TLD		.id
Calling code		+62

Indonesia (ⁱ /ˌɪndəˈniːʒə/ or /ˌɪndoʊˈniːziə/), officially the Republic of Indonesia (Indonesian: Republik Indonesia), is a country in Southeast Asia and Oceania. Indonesia comprises 17,508 islands. With over 238 million people, it is the world's fourth most populous country, and has the world's largest population of Muslims. Indonesia is a republic, with an elected legislature and president. The nation's capital city is Jakarta. The country shares land borders with Papua New Guinea, East Timor, and Malaysia. Other neighboring countries include Singapore, Philippines, Australia, and the Indian territory of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Indonesia is a founding member of ASEAN and a member of the G-20 major economies. The Indonesian economy is the world's eighteenth largest economy by nominal GDP and fifteenth largest by purchasing power parity.
The Indonesian archipelago has been an important trade region since at least the 7th century, when Srivijaya and then later Majapahit traded with China and India. Local rulers gradually absorbed foreign cultural, religious and political models from the early centuries CE, and Hindu and Buddhist kingdoms flourished. Indonesian history has been influenced by foreign powers drawn to its natural resources. Muslim traders brought Islam, and European powers fought one another to monopolize trade in the Spice Islands of Maluku during the Age of Discovery. Following three and a half centuries of Dutch colonialism, Indonesia secured its independence after World War II. Indonesia's history has since been turbulent, with challenges posed by natural disasters, corruption, separatism, a democratization process, and periods of rapid economic change. The current nation of Indonesia is a unitary presidential republic consisting of thirty three provinces.
Across its many islands, Indonesia consists of distinct ethnic, linguistic, and religious groups. The Javanese are the largest—and the politically dominant—ethnic group. Indonesia has developed a shared identity defined by a national language, ethnic diversity, religious pluralism within a majority Muslim population, and a history of colonialism including rebellion against it. Indonesia's national motto, "Bhinneka Tunggal Ika" ("Unity in Diversity" literally, "many, yet one"), articulates the diversity that shapes the country. Despite its large population and densely populated regions, Indonesia has vast areas of wilderness that support the world's second highest level of biodiversity. The country is richly endowed with natural resources, yet poverty remains widespread in contemporary Indonesia.^[6]

Contents [hide] 1 Etymology 2 History 3 Government and politics 4 Foreign relations and military 5 Administrative divisions 6 Geography 7 Biota and environment 8 Economy 9 Demographics 10 Culture 11 See also 12 Notes 13 References 14 External links

[edit] Etymology

The name Indonesia derives from the Latin Indus, and the Greek nesos, meaning "island".^[7] The name dates to the 18th century, far predating the formation of independent Indonesia.^[8] In 1850, George Windsor Earl, an English ethnologist, proposed the terms Indunesians — and, his preference, Malayunesians — for the inhabitants of the "Indian Archipelago or Malayan Archipelago".^[9] In the same publication, a student of Earl's, James Richardson Logan, used Indonesia as a synonym for Indian Archipelago.^[10] However, Dutch academics writing in East Indies publications were reluctant to use Indonesia. Instead, they used the terms Malay Archipelago (Maleische Archipel); the Netherlands East Indies (Nederlandsch Oost Indië), popularly Indië; the East (de Oost); and even Insulinde.^[11]
From 1900, the name Indonesia became more common in academic circles outside the Netherlands, and Indonesian nationalist groups adopted it for political expression.^[12] Adolf Bastian, of the University of Berlin, popularized the name through his book Indonesien oder die Inseln des Malayischen Archipels, 1884–1894. The first Indonesian scholar to use the name was Suwardi Suryaningrat (Ki Hajar Dewantara), when he established a press bureau in the Netherlands with the name Indonesisch Pers-bureau in 1913.^[8]

[edit] History

Main article: History of Indonesia

Picture: a ship carved on Borobudur, circa 800 CE. Indonesian outrigger boats may have made trade voyages to the east coast of Africa as early as the first century CE.^[13]

Fossilized remains of Homo erectus, popularly known as the "Java Man", suggest that the Indonesian archipelago was inhabited two million to 500,000 years ago.^[14] Austronesian peoples, who form the majority of the modern population, migrated to South East Asia from Taiwan. They arrived in Indonesia around 2000 BCE, and as they spread through the archipelago, confined the native Melanesian peoples to the far eastern regions.^[15] Ideal agricultural conditions, and the mastering of wet-field rice cultivation as early as the 8th century BCE,^[16] allowed villages, towns, and small kingdoms to flourish by the 1st century CE. Indonesia's strategic sea-lane position fostered inter-island and international trade, including links with Indian kingdoms and China, which were established several centuries BCE.^[17] Trade has since fundamentally shaped Indonesian history.^[18]

The nutmeg plant is native to Indonesia's Banda Islands. Once one of the world's most valuable commodities, it drew the first European colonial powers to Indonesia.

From the 7th century CE, the powerful Srivijaya naval kingdom flourished as a result of trade and the influences of Hinduism and Buddhism that were imported with it.^[19] Between the eighth and 10th centuries CE, the agricultural Buddhist Sailendra and Hindu Mataram dynasties thrived and declined in inland Java, leaving grand religious monuments such as Sailendra's Borobudur and Mataram's Prambanan. The Hindu Majapahit kingdom was founded in eastern Java in the late 13th century, and under Gajah Mada, its influence stretched over much of Indonesia.^[20]
Although Muslim traders first traveled through South East Asia early in the Islamic era, the earliest evidence of Islamized populations in Indonesia dates to the 13th century in northern Sumatra.^[21] Other Indonesian areas gradually adopted Islam, and it was the dominant religion in Java and Sumatra by the end of the 16th century. For the most part, Islam overlaid and mixed with existing cultural and religious influences, which shaped the predominant form of Islam in Indonesia, particularly in Java.^[22] The first Europeans arrived in Indonesia in 1512, when Portuguese traders, led by Francisco Serrão, sought to monopolize the sources of nutmeg, cloves, and cubeb pepper in Maluku.^[23] Dutch and British traders followed. In 1602 the Dutch established the Dutch East India Company (VOC) and became the dominant European power. Following bankruptcy, the VOC was formally dissolved in 1800, and the government of the Netherlands established the Dutch East Indies as a nationalized colony.^[24]
For most of the colonial period, Dutch control over the archipelago was tenuous outside of coastal strongholds; only in the early 20th century did Dutch dominance extend to what was to become Indonesia's current boundaries.^[25] Japanese occupation during World War II ended Dutch rule,^[26] and encouraged the previously suppressed Indonesian independence movement.^[27] Two days after the surrender of Japan in August 1945, Sukarno, an influential nationalist leader, declared independence and was appointed president.^[28] The Netherlands tried to reestablish their rule, and an armed and diplomatic struggle ended in December 1949, when in the face of international pressure, the Dutch formally recognized Indonesian independence^[29] (with the exception of the Dutch territory of West New Guinea, which was incorporated into Indonesia following the 1962 New York Agreement, and the UN-mandated Act of Free Choice of 1969).^[30]

Sukarno, Indonesia's founding president

Sukarno moved from democracy towards authoritarianism, and maintained his power base by balancing the opposing forces of the military and the Communist Party of Indonesia (PKI).^[31] An attempted coup on 30 September 1965 was countered by the army, who led a violent anti-communist purge, during which the PKI was blamed for the coup and effectively destroyed.^[32] Between 500,000 and one million people were killed.^[33] The head of the military, General Suharto, out-maneuvered the politically weakened Sukarno, and was formally appointed president in March 1968. His New Order administration^[34] was supported by the US government,^[35] and encouraged foreign direct investment in Indonesia, which was a major factor in the subsequent three decades of substantial economic growth.^[36] However, the authoritarian "New Order" was widely accused of corruption and suppression of political opposition.
Indonesia was the country hardest hit by the late 1990s Asian Financial Crisis.^[37] This increased popular discontent with the New Order and led to popular protest across the country. Suharto resigned on 21 May 1998.^[38] In 1999, East Timor voted to secede from Indonesia, after a twenty-five-year military occupation that was marked by international condemnation of repression of the East Timorese.^[39] Since Suharto's resignation, a strengthening of democratic processes has included a regional autonomy program, and the first direct presidential election in 2004. Political and economic instability, social unrest, corruption, and terrorism slowed progress, however, in the last five years the economy has performed strongly. Although relations among different religious and ethnic groups are largely harmonious, sectarian discontent and violence has occurred.^[40] A political settlement to an armed separatist conflict in Aceh was achieved in 2005.^[41]

[edit] Government and politics

Main article: Politics of Indonesia

Indonesia is a republic with a presidential system. As a unitary state, power is concentrated in the central government. Following the resignation of President Suharto in 1998, Indonesian political and governmental structures have undergone major reforms. Four amendments to the 1945 Constitution of Indonesia^[42] have revamped the executive, judicial, and legislative branches.^[43] The president of Indonesia is the head of state, commander-in-chief of the Indonesian National Armed Forces, and the director of domestic governance, policy-making, and foreign affairs. The president appoints a council of ministers, who are not required to be elected members of the legislature. The 2004 presidential election was the first in which the people directly elected the president and vice president.^[44] The president may serve a maximum of two consecutive five-year terms.^[45]

A session of the People's Representative Council in Jakarta

The highest representative body at national level is the People's Consultative Assembly (MPR). Its main functions are supporting and amending the constitution, inaugurating the president, and formalizing broad outlines of state policy. It has the power to impeach the president.^[46] The MPR comprises two houses; the People's Representative Council (DPR), with 560 members, and the Regional Representative Council (DPD), with 132 members.^[47] The DPR passes legislation and monitors the executive branch; party-aligned members are elected for five-year terms by proportional representation.^[43] Reforms since 1998 have markedly increased the DPR's role in national governance.^[48] The DPD is a new chamber for matters of regional management.^[49]
Most civil disputes appear before a State Court (Pengadilan Negeri); appeals are heard before the High Court (Pengadilan Tinggi). The Supreme Court (Mahkamah Agung) is the country's highest court, and hears final cessation appeals and conducts case reviews. Other courts include the Commercial Court, which handles bankruptcy and insolvency; a State Administrative Court (Pengadilan Tata Negara) to hear administrative law cases against the government; a Constitutional Court (Mahkamah Konstitusi) to hear disputes concerning legality of law, general elections, dissolution of political parties, and the scope of authority of state institutions; and a Religious Court (Pengadilan Agama) to deal with codified Sharia Law cases.^[50]

[edit] Foreign relations and military

Main articles: Foreign relations of Indonesia and Indonesian National Armed Forces

In contrast to Sukarno's anti-imperialistic antipathy to western powers and tensions with Malaysia, Indonesia's foreign relations since the Suharto "New Order" have been based on economic and political cooperation with Western nations.^[51] Indonesia maintains close relationships with its neighbors in Asia, and is a founding member of ASEAN and the East Asia Summit.^[47] The nation restored relations with the People's Republic of China in 1990 following a freeze in place since anti-communist purges early in the Suharto era.^[50] Indonesia has been a member of the United Nations since 1950,^[52] and was a founder of the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) and the Organisation of the Islamic Conference (OIC).^[47] Indonesia is signatory to the ASEAN Free Trade Area agreement, the Cairns Group, and the WTO, and has historically been a member of OPEC, although it withdrew in 2008 as it was no longer a net exporter of oil. Indonesia has received humanitarian and development aid since 1966, in particular from the United States, western Europe, Australia, and Japan.^[47]
The Indonesian Government has worked with other countries to apprehend and prosecute perpetrators of major bombings linked to militant Islamism and Al-Qaeda.^[53] The deadliest killed 202 people (including 164 international tourists) in the Bali resort town of Kuta in 2002.^[54] The attacks, and subsequent travel warnings issued by other countries, severely damaged Indonesia's tourism industry and foreign investment prospects.^[55]
Indonesia's 300,000-member armed forces (TNI) include the Army (TNI–AD), Navy (TNI–AL, which includes marines), and Air Force (TNI–AU).^[56] The army has about 233,000 active-duty personnel. Defense spending in the national budget was 4% of GDP in 2006, and is controversially supplemented by revenue from military commercial interests and foundations.^[57] One of the reforms following the 1998 resignation of Suharto was the removal of formal TNI representation in parliament; nevertheless, its political influence remains extensive.^[58]
Separatist movements in the provinces of Aceh and Papua have led to armed conflict, and subsequent allegations of human rights abuses and brutality from all sides.^[59] Following a sporadic thirty-year guerrilla war between the Free Aceh Movement (GAM) and the Indonesian military, a ceasefire agreement was reached in 2005.^[60] In Papua, there has been a significant, albeit imperfect, implementation of regional autonomy laws, and a reported decline in the levels of violence and human rights abuses, since the presidency of Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono.^[61]

[edit] Administrative divisions

Main articles: Provinces of Indonesia and Administrative divisions of Indonesia

Provinces of Indonesia

Administratively, Indonesia consists of 33 provinces, five of which have special status. Each province has its own political legislature and governor. The provinces are subdivided into regencies (kabupaten) and cities (kota), which are further subdivided into districts (kecamatan), and again into village groupings (either desa or kelurahan). Furthermore, a village is divided into several citizen-groups (Rukun-Warga (RW)) which are further divided into several neighbourhood-groups (Rukun-Tetangga (RT)). Following the implementation of regional autonomy measures in 2001, the regencies and cities have become the key administrative units, responsible for providing most government services. The village administration level is the most influential on a citizen's daily life, and handles matters of a village or neighborhood through an elected lurah or kepala desa (village chief).
The provinces of Aceh, Jakarta, Yogyakarta, and West Papua have greater legislative privileges and a higher degree of autonomy from the central government than the other provinces. The Acehnese government, for example, has the right to create an independent legal system; in 2003, it instituted a form of Sharia (Islamic law).^[62] Yogyakarta was granted the status of Special Region in recognition of its pivotal role in supporting Indonesian Republicans during the Indonesian Revolution.^[63] Papua, formerly known as Irian Jaya, now West Papua, was granted special autonomy status in 2001.^[64] Jakarta is the country's special capital region.
Indonesian provinces and their capitals – listed by region
(Indonesian name in parentheses if different from English)
† indicates provinces with Special Status

Sumatra Aceh† – Banda Aceh North Sumatra (Sumatera Utara) – Medan West Sumatra (Sumatera Barat) – Padang Riau – Pekanbaru Riau Islands (Kepulauan Riau) – Tanjung Pinang Jambi – Jambi (city) South Sumatra (Sumatera Selatan) – Palembang Bangka-Belitung (Kepulauan Bangka-Belitung) – Pangkal Pinang Bengkulu – Bengkulu (city) Lampung – Bandar Lampung Java Jakarta† – Jakarta Banten – Serang West Java (Jawa Barat) – Bandung Central Java (Jawa Tengah) – Semarang Yogyakarta Special Region† (Daerah Istimewa Yogyakarta) – Yogyakarta (city) East Java (Jawa Timur) – Surabaya Lesser Sunda Islands Bali – Denpasar West Nusa Tenggara (Nusa Tenggara Barat) – Mataram East Nusa Tenggara (Nusa Tenggara Timur) – Kupang

Kalimantan West Kalimantan (Kalimantan Barat) – Pontianak Central Kalimantan (Kalimantan Tengah) – Palangkaraya South Kalimantan (Kalimantan Selatan) – Banjarmasin East Kalimantan (Kalimantan Timur) – Samarinda Sulawesi North Sulawesi (Sulawesi Utara) – Manado Gorontalo – Gorontalo (city) Central Sulawesi (Sulawesi Tengah) – Palu West Sulawesi (Sulawesi Barat) – Mamuju South Sulawesi (Sulawesi Selatan) – Makassar South East Sulawesi (Sulawesi Tenggara) – Kendari Maluku Islands Maluku – Ambon North Maluku (Maluku Utara) – Sofifi Western New Guinea West Papua† (Papua Barat) – Manokwari Papua† – Jayapura

[edit] Geography

Main article: Geography of Indonesia

Map of Indonesia

Indonesia lies between latitudes 11°S and 6°N, and longitudes 95°E and 141°E. It consists of 17,508 islands, about 6,000 of which are inhabited.^[65] These are scattered over both sides of the equator. The largest are Java, Sumatra, Borneo (shared with Brunei and Malaysia), New Guinea (shared with Papua New Guinea), and Sulawesi. Indonesia shares land borders with Malaysia on Borneo, Papua New Guinea on the island of New Guinea, and East Timor on the island of Timor. Indonesia shares maritime borders across narrow straits with Singapore, Malaysia, and the Philippines to the north, and with Australia to the south. The capital, Jakarta, is on Java and is the nation's largest city, followed by Surabaya, Bandung, Medan, and Semarang.^[66]
At 1,919,440 square kilometers (741,050 sq mi), Indonesia is the world's 16th-largest country in terms of land area.^[67] Its average population density is 134 people per square kilometer (347 per sq mi), 79th in the world,^[68] although Java, the world's most populous island,^[69] has a population density of 940 people per square kilometer (2,435 per sq mi). At 4,884 metres (16,024 ft), Puncak Jaya in Papua is Indonesia's highest peak, and Lake Toba in Sumatra its largest lake, with an area of 1,145 square kilometers (442 sq mi). The country's largest rivers are in Kalimantan, and include the Mahakam and Barito; such rivers are communication and transport links between the island's river settlements.^[70]

Mount Semeru and Mount Bromo in East Java. Indonesia's seismic and volcanic activity is among the world's highest.

Indonesia's location on the edges of the Pacific, Eurasian, and Australian tectonic plates makes it the site of numerous volcanoes and frequent earthquakes. Indonesia has at least 150 active volcanoes,^[71] including Krakatoa and Tambora, both famous for their devastating eruptions in the 19th century. The eruption of the Toba supervolcano, approximately 70,000 years ago, was one of the largest eruptions ever, and a global catastrophe. Recent disasters due to seismic activity include the 2004 tsunami that killed an estimated 167,736 in northern Sumatra,^[72] and the Yogyakarta earthquake in 2006. However, volcanic ash is a major contributor to the high agricultural fertility that has historically sustained the high population densities of Java and Bali.^[73]
Lying along the equator, Indonesia has a tropical climate, with two distinct monsoonal wet and dry seasons. Average annual rainfall in the lowlands varies from 1,780–3,175 millimeters (70–125 in), and up to 6,100 millimeters (240 in) in mountainous regions. Mountainous areas—particularly in the west coast of Sumatra, West Java, Kalimantan, Sulawesi, and Papua—receive the highest rainfall. Humidity is generally high, averaging about 80%. Temperatures vary little throughout the year; the average daily temperature range of Jakarta is 26–30 °C (79–86 °F).^[74]

[edit] Biota and environment

Main articles: Fauna of Indonesia, Flora of Indonesia, and Environment of Indonesia

The critically endangered Sumatran Orangutan, a great ape endemic to Indonesia.

Indonesia's size, tropical climate, and archipelagic geography, support the world's second highest level of biodiversity (after Brazil),^[75] and its flora and fauna is a mixture of Asian and Australasian species.^[76] Once linked to the Asian mainland, the islands of the Sunda Shelf (Sumatra, Java, Borneo, and Bali) have a wealth of Asian fauna. Large species such as the tiger, rhinoceros, orangutan, elephant, and leopard, were once abundant as far east as Bali, but numbers and distribution have dwindled drastically. Forests cover approximately 60% of the country.^[77] In Sumatra and Kalimantan, these are predominantly of Asian species. However, the forests of the smaller, and more densely populated Java, have largely been removed for human habitation and agriculture. Sulawesi, Nusa Tenggara, and Maluku—having been long separated from the continental landmasses—have developed their own unique flora and fauna.^[78] Papua was part of the Australian landmass, and is home to a unique fauna and flora closely related to that of Australia, including over 600 bird species.^[79]
Indonesia is second only to Australia in terms of total endemic species, with 36% of its 1,531 species of bird and 39% of its 515 species of mammal being endemic.^[80] Indonesia's 80,000 kilometers (50,000 mi) of coastline are surrounded by tropical seas that contribute to the country's high level of biodiversity. Indonesia has a range of sea and coastal ecosystems, including beaches, sand dunes, estuaries, mangroves, coral reefs, sea grass beds, coastal mudflats, tidal flats, algal beds, and small island ecosystems.^[7] The British naturalist, Alfred Wallace, described a dividing line between the distribution and peace of Indonesia's Asian and Australasian species.^[81] Known as the Wallace Line, it runs roughly north-south along the edge of the Sunda Shelf, between Kalimantan and Sulawesi, and along the deep Lombok Strait, between Lombok and Bali. West of the line the flora and fauna are more Asian; moving east from Lombok, they are increasingly Australian. In his 1869 book, The Malay Archipelago, Wallace described numerous species unique to the area.^[82] The region of islands between his line and New Guinea is now termed Wallacea.^[81]
Indonesia's high population and rapid industrialization present serious environmental issues, which are often given a lower priority due to high poverty levels and weak, under-resourced governance.^[83] Issues include large-scale deforestation (much of it illegal) and related wildfires causing heavy smog over parts of western Indonesia, Malaysia and Singapore; over-exploitation of marine resources; and environmental problems associated with rapid urbanization and economic development, including air pollution, traffic congestion, garbage management, and reliable water and waste water services.^[83] Deforestation and the destruction of peatlands make Indonesia the world's third largest emitter of greenhouse gases.^[84] Habitat destruction threatens the survival of indigenous and endemic species, including 140 species of mammals identified by the World Conservation Union (IUCN) as threatened, and 15 identified as critically endangered, including the Sumatran Orangutan.^[85]

[edit] Economy

Main article: Economy of Indonesia

Using water buffalo to plough rice fields in Java. Agriculture has been the country's largest employer for centuries.

Indonesia has a mixed economy in which both the private sector and government play significant roles.^[86] The country is the largest economy in Southeast Asia and a member of the G-20 major economies.^[87] Indonesia's estimated gross domestic product (nominal), as of 2009 was US$539.7 billion with estimated nominal per capita GDP was US$2,329, and per capita GDP PPP was US$4,157 (international dollars).^[88] The industry sector is the economy's largest and accounts for 47.6% of GDP (2009). This is followed by services (37.1%) and agriculture (15.3%).^[89] However, as of 2005, agriculture remained employing more people than other sectors, accounting for 44.3% of the 95 million-strong workforce, this was followed by the services sector (36.9%) and industry (18.8%).^[90]
Indonesia's main export markets (2009) are Japan (17.28%), Singapore (11.29%), the United States (10.81%), and China (7.62%). The major suppliers of imports to Indonesia are Singapore (24.96%), China (12.52%), and Japan (8.92%). In 2005, Indonesia ran a trade surplus with export revenues of US$83.64 billion and import expenditure of US$62.02 billion. The country has extensive natural resources, including crude oil, natural gas, tin, copper, and gold. Indonesia's major imports include machinery and equipment, chemicals, fuels, and foodstuffs. And the country's major export commodities include oil and gas, electrical appliances, plywood, rubber, and textiles.^[91]

Jakarta, the capital of Indonesia and the country's largest commercial center.

In the 1960s, the economy deteriorated drastically as a result of political instability, a young and inexperienced government, and economic nationalism, which resulted in severe poverty and hunger.^[92] Following President Sukarno's downfall in the mid-1960s, the New Order administration brought a degree of discipline to economic policy that quickly brought inflation down, stabilized the currency, rescheduled foreign debt, and attracted foreign aid and investment.^[93] (See Berkeley Mafia). Indonesia was until recently Southeast Asia's only member of OPEC, and the 1970s oil price raises provided an export revenue windfall that contributed to sustained high economic growth rates.^[94] Following further reforms in the late 1980s,^[95] foreign investment flowed into Indonesia, particularly into the rapidly developing export-oriented manufacturing sector, and from 1989 to 1997, the Indonesian economy grew by an average of over 7%.^[96]
Indonesia was the country hardest hit by the Asian financial crisis of 1997–98. Against the US dollar, the rupiah dropped from about Rp. 2,600 to a low point of 14,000, and the economy shrank by 13.7%.^[97] The Rupiah stabilised in the Rp. 8,000 to 10,000 range,^[98] and a slow but significant economic recovery has ensued. However, political instability, slow economic reform, and corruption slowed the recovery.^[6] Transparency International, for example, has since ranked Indonesia below 100 in its Corruption Perceptions Index.^[99][100] GDP growth, however, has 5% annually since 2004,^[101] which, however, was not enough to make a significant impact on unemployment,^[102] and stagnant wages growth and increases in fuel and rice prices worsened poverty levels. As of 2006, an estimated 17.8% of the population was living below the poverty line, defined by the Indonesian government as purchasing power parity of US$1.55 per day (household income), and nearly half of the population was living on less than US$2 per day.^[103] Since 2007, GDP growth has averaged 6%,^[104] and the unemployment rate dropped to 7.7% in 2009.^[105] Unlike its neighbors, Indonesia was barely affected by the 2008 global recession.^[106] Driven by high domestic consumption, surplus balance of payment and improving banking sector, the Indonesian economy grew by 6.2 per cent in 2010. Inflationary and regulatory weaknesses, however, remain problems.^{[107][108][109]}

[edit] Demographics

Main articles: Demographics of Indonesia, Languages of Indonesia, and Religion in Indonesia

Balinese children. There are around 300 distinct native ethnicities in Indonesia.

The population of Indonesia according to the 2010 national census is 237.6 million,^[3] with 58% living on the island of Java,^[3] the world's most populous island.^[110] Despite a fairly effective family planning program that has been in place since the 1960s, the population is expected to grow to around 254 million by 2020 and 288 million by 2050.^[111]
Most Indonesians are descended from Austronesian-speaking peoples whose languages can be traced to Proto Austronesian (PAn), which possibly originated in Taiwan. Another major grouping are Melanesians, who inhabit eastern Indonesia.^[112] There are around 300 distinct native ethnicities in Indonesia, and 742 different languages and dialects.^[113] The largest ethnic group is the Javanese, who comprise 42% of the population, and are politically and culturally dominant.^[114] The Sundanese, ethnic Malays, and Madurese are the largest non-Javanese groups.^[115] A sense of Indonesian nationhood exists alongside strong regional identities.^[116] Society is largely harmonious, although social, religious and ethnic tensions have triggered horrendous violence.^[117] Chinese Indonesians are an influential ethnic minority comprising 3-4% of the population.^[118] Much of the country's privately owned commerce and wealth is Chinese-Indonesian-controlled,^[119] which has contributed to considerable resentment, and even anti-Chinese violence.^[120]

The Istiqlal Mosque in Central Jakarta. Indonesia has the world's largest population of Muslims

The official national language, Indonesian, a form of Malay, is universally taught in schools, and consequently is spoken by nearly every Indonesian. It is the language of business, politics, national media, education, and academia. It is based on the prestige dialect of Malay, that of the Johor-Riau Sultanate, which for centuries had been the lingua franca of the archipelago, standards of which are the official languages in Singapore, Malaysia and Brunei. It was promoted by Indonesian nationalists in the 1920s, and declared the official language under the name Bahasa Indonesia on the proclamation of independence in 1945. Most Indonesians speak at least one of the several hundred local languages and dialects, often as their first language. Of these, Javanese is the most widely spoken as the language of the largest ethnic group.^[121] On the other hand, Papua has over 270 indigenous Papuan and Austronesian languages,^[122] in a region of about 2.7 million people. A significant fraction of the people who attended school before independence can speak Dutch to some extent.^[123]
Although religious freedom is stipulated in the Indonesian constitution,^{[124][dead link]} the government officially recognizes only six religions: Islam, Protestantism, Roman Catholicism, Hinduism, Buddhism, and Confucianism.^[125] Although it is not an Islamic state, Indonesia is the world's most populous Muslim-majority nation, with 86.1% of Indonesians were Muslim according to the 2000 census.^[121] 9% of the population was Christian, 3% Hindu, and 2% Buddhist or other. Most Indonesian Hindus are Balinese,^[126] and most Buddhists in modern-day Indonesia are ethnic Chinese.^[127] Though now minority religions, Hinduism and Buddhism remain defining influences in Indonesian culture. Islam was first adopted by Indonesians in northern Sumatra in the 13th century, through the influence of traders, and became the country's dominant religion by the 16th century.^[128] Roman Catholicism was brought to Indonesia by early Portuguese colonialists and missionaries,^[129] and the Protestant denominations are largely a result of Dutch Calvinist and Lutheran missionary efforts during the country's colonial period.^[130] A large proportion of Indonesians—such as the Javanese abangan, Balinese Hindus, and Dayak Christians—practice a less orthodox, syncretic form of their religion, which draws on local customs and beliefs.^[131]

[edit] Culture

Main article: Culture of Indonesia

Wayang Kulit (shadow puppet) in Wayang Purwa type, depicting five Pandava, from left to right: Bhima, Arjuna, Yudhishtira, Nakula, and Sahadeva, Indonesia Museum, Jakarta.

Indonesia has around 300 ethnic groups, each with cultural identities developed over centuries, and influenced by Indian, Arabic, Chinese, and European sources. Traditional Javanese and Balinese dances, for example, contain aspects of Hindu culture and mythology, as do wayang kulit (shadow puppet) performances. Textiles such as batik, ikat and songket are created across Indonesia in styles that vary by region. The most dominant influences on Indonesian architecture have traditionally been Indian; however, Chinese, Arab, and European architectural influences have been significant.
Sports in Indonesia are generally male-orientated and spectator sports are often associated with illegal gambling.^[132] The most popular sports are badminton and football. Indonesian players have won the Thomas Cup (the world team championship of men's badminton) thirteen of the twenty-six times that it has been held since 1949, as well as numerous Olympic medals since the sport gained full Olympic status in 1992. Its women have won the Uber Cup, the female equivalent of the Thomas Cup, twice, in 1994 and 1996. Liga Indonesia is the country's premier football club league. Traditional sports include sepak takraw, and bull racing in Madura. In areas with a history of tribal warfare, mock fighting contests are held, such as, caci in Flores, and pasola in Sumba. Pencak Silat is an Indonesian martial art.

A selection of Indonesian food, including roasted fish, nasi timbel (rice wrapped in banana leaf), sambal, fried tempeh and tofu, and sayur asem.

Indonesian cuisine varies by region and is based on Chinese, European, Middle Eastern, and Indian precedents.^[133] Rice is the main staple food and is served with side dishes of meat and vegetables. Spices (notably chili), coconut milk, fish and chicken are fundamental ingredients.^[134] Indonesian traditional music includes gamelan and keroncong. Dangdut is a popular contemporary genre of pop music that draws influence from Arabic, Indian, and Malay folk music. The Indonesian film industry's popularity peaked in the 1980s and dominated cinemas in Indonesia,^[135] although it declined significantly in the early 1990s.^[136] Between 2000 and 2005, the number of Indonesian films released each year has steadily increased.^[135]
The oldest evidence of writing in Indonesia is a series of Sanskrit inscriptions dated to the 5th century CE. Important figures in modern Indonesian literature include: Dutch author Multatuli, who criticized treatment of the Indonesians under Dutch colonial rule; Sumatrans Muhammad Yamin and Hamka, who were influential pre-independence nationalist writers and politicians;^[137] and proletarian writer Pramoedya Ananta Toer, Indonesia's most famous novelist.^[138] Many of Indonesia's peoples have strongly rooted oral traditions, which help to define and preserve their cultural identities.^[139]
Media freedom in Indonesia increased considerably after the end of President Suharto's rule, during which the now-defunct Ministry of Information monitored and controlled domestic media, and restricted foreign media.^[140] The TV market includes ten national commercial networks, and provincial networks that compete with public TVRI. Private radio stations carry their own news bulletins and foreign broadcasters supply programs. At a reported 25 million users in 2008,^[141] Internet usage was estimated at 12.5% in September 2009.^[142]
More than 30 million cell phones are sold in Indonesia each year, and 27 percent of them are local brands.^[143]

[edit] See also

Indonesia portal

• List of Indonesia-related topics

[edit] Notes

1. ^ US Library of Congress; Vickers (2005), page 117.
2. ^ Department of Economic and Social Affairs Population Division (2009) (PDF). World Population Prospects, Table A.1. 2008 revision. United Nations. http://www.un.org/esa/population/publications/wpp2008/wpp2008_text_tables.pdf. Retrieved 12 March 2009. 
3. ^ ^{a b c} Central Bureau of Statistics: Census 2010, retrieved 17 January 2011 (Indonesian)
4. ^ ^{a b c d} "Indonesia". International Monetary Fund. http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2010/01/weodata/weorept.aspx?sy=2007&ey=2010&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=536&s=NGDPD%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC%2CLP&grp=0&a=&pr.x=48&pr.y=11. Retrieved 21 April 2010. 
5. ^ "Human Development Report 2010.". http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2010_EN_Complete.pdf. Retrieved 4 November 2010. 
6. ^ ^{a b} "Poverty in Indonesia: Always with them". The Economist. 14 September 2006. http://www.economist.com/world/asia/displaystory.cfm?story_id=7925064. Retrieved 26 December 2006. ; (subsequent correction); Guerin, G. (23 May 2006). "Don't count on a Suharto accounting". Asia Tims Online (Asia Times Online Ltd, Hong Kong). http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Southeast_Asia/HE23Ae01.html. 
7. ^ ^{a b} Tomascik, T; Mah, J.A., Nontji, A., Moosa, M.K. (1996). The Ecology of the Indonesian Seas – Part One. Hong Kong: Periplus Editions Ltd.. ISBN 962-593-078-7. 
8. ^ ^{a b} (Indonesian) Anshory, Irfan (16 August 2004). "Asal Usul Nama Indonesia". Pikiran Rakyat. Archived from the original on December 15, 2006. http://web.archive.org/web/20061215190155/http://www.pikiran-rakyat.com/cetak/0804/16/0802.htm. Retrieved 5 October 2006. 
9. ^ Earl, George S. W. (1850). "On The Leading Characteristics of the Papuan, Australian and Malay-Polynesian Nations". Journal of the Indian Archipelago and Eastern Asia (JIAEA): 119. 
10. ^ Logan, James Richardson (1850). "The Ethnology of the Indian Archipelago: Embracing Enquiries into the Continental Relations of the Indo-Pacific Islanders". Journal of the Indian Archipelago and Eastern Asia (JIAEA): 4:252–347. ; Earl, George S. W. (1850). "On The Leading Characteristics of the Papuan, Australian and Malay-Polynesian Nations". Journal of the Indian Archipelago and Eastern Asia (JIAEA): 254, 277–278. 
11. ^ (This term was introduced in 1860 in the influential novel Max Havelaar (1859), written by Multatuli, critical of Dutch colonialism). Justus M. van der Kroef (1951). "The Term Indonesia: Its Origin and Usage". Journal of the American Oriental Society 71 (3): 166–171. doi:10.2307/595186. http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0003-0279%28195107%2F09%2971%3A3%3C166%3ATTIIOA%3E2.0.CO%3B2-5. 
12. ^ Jusuf M. van der Kroef (1951). "The Term Indonesia: Its Origin and Usage". Journal of the American Oriental Society 71 (3): 166–171. doi:10.2307/595186. http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0003-0279%28195107%2F09%2971%3A3%3C166%3ATTIIOA%3E2.0.CO%3B2-5. 
13. ^ Brown, Colin (2003). A short history of Indonesia : the unlikely nation?. Allen & Unwin. p. 13. ISBN 1-86508-838-2. 
14. ^ Pope, G G (1988). "Recent advances in far eastern paleoanthropology". Annual Review of Anthropology 17: 43–77. doi:10.1146/annurev.an.17.100188.000355.  cited in Whitten, T; Soeriaatmadja, R. E., Suraya A. A. (1996). The Ecology of Java and Bali. Hong Kong: Periplus Editions Ltd. pp. 309–312. ; Pope, G (15 August 1983). "Evidence on the Age of the Asian Hominidae". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 80 (16): 4,988–4992. doi:10.1073/pnas.80.16.4988. PMID 6410399. PMC 384173. http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/abstract/80/16/4988.  cited in Whitten, T; Soeriaatmadja, R. E., Suraya A. A. (1996). The Ecology of Java and Bali. Hong Kong: Periplus Editions Ltd. p. 309. ; de Vos, J.P.; P.Y. Sondaar, (9 December 1994). "Dating hominid sites in Indonesia" (PDF). Science Magazine 266 (16): 4,988–4992. doi:10.1126/science.7992059. http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/reprint/266/5191/1726.pdf.  cited in Whitten, T; Soeriaatmadja, R. E., Suraya A. A. (1996). The Ecology of Java and Bali. Hong Kong: Periplus Editions Ltd. p. 309. 
15. ^ Taylor (2003), pages 5–7
16. ^ Taylor, Jean Gelman. Indonesia. New Haven and London: Yale University Press. pp. 8–9. ISBN 0-300-10518-5. 
17. ^ Taylor, Jean Gelman. Indonesia. New Haven and London: Yale University Press. pp. 15–18. ISBN 0-300-10518-5. 
18. ^ Taylor (2003), pages 3, 9, 10–11, 13, 14–15, 18–20, 22–23; Vickers (2005), pages 18–20, 60, 133–134
19. ^ Taylor (2003), pages 22–26; Ricklefs (1991), page 3
20. ^ Peter Lewis (1982). "The next great empire". Futures 14 (1): 47–61. doi:10.1016/0016-3287(82)90071-4. 
21. ^ Ricklefs (1991), pages 3 to 14
22. ^ Ricklefs (1991), pages 12–14
23. ^ Ricklefs, M.C (1993). A History of Modern Indonesia Since c.1300, second edition. London: MacMillan. pp. 22–24. ISBN 0-333-57689-6. 
24. ^ Ricklefs (1991), page 24
25. ^ Dutch troops were constantly engaged in quelling rebellions both on and off Java. The influence of local leaders such as Prince Diponegoro in central Java, Imam Bonjol in central Sumatra and Pattimura in Maluku, and a bloody thirty-year war in Aceh weakened the Dutch and tied up the colonial military forces.(Schwartz 1999, pages 3–4) Despite major internal political, social and sectarian divisions during the National Revolution, Indonesians, on the whole, found unity in their fight for independence.
26. ^ Gert Oostindie and Bert Paasman (1998). "Dutch Attitudes towards Colonial Empires, Indigenous Cultures, and Slaves". Eighteenth-Century Studies 31 (3): 349–355. doi:10.1353/ecs.1998.0021. http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/eighteenth-century_studies/v031/31.3oostindie.html. ; Ricklefs, M.C. (1993). History of Modern Indonesia Since c.1300, second edition. London: MacMillan. ISBN 0-333-57689-6. 
27. ^ Library of Congress, 1992, "Indonesia: World War II and the Struggle For Independence, 1942–50; The Japanese Occupation, 1942–45".
28. ^ H. J. Van Mook (1949). "Indonesia". Royal Institute of International Affairs 25 (3): 274–285. http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0020-5850%28194907%2925%3A3%3C274%3AI%3E2.0.CO%3B2-P. ; Charles Bidien (5 December 1945). "Independence the Issue". Far Eastern Survey 14 (24): 345–348. doi:10.1525/as.1945.14.24.01p17062. http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0362-8949%2819451205%2914%3A24%3C345%3AITI%3E2.0.CO%3B2-S. ; Taylor, Jean Gelman (2003). Indonesia: Peoples and History. Yale University Press. p. 325. ISBN 0-300-10518-5. ; Reid (1973), page 30
29. ^ Charles Bidien (5 December 1945). "Independence the Issue". Far Eastern Survey 14 (24): 345–348. doi:10.1525/as.1945.14.24.01p17062. http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0362-8949%2819451205%2914%3A24%3C345%3AITI%3E2.0.CO%3B2-S. ; "Indonesian War of Independence". Military. GlobalSecurity.org. http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/war/indo-inde.htm. Retrieved 11 December 2006. 
30. ^ Indonesia's 1969 Takeover of West Papua Not by "Free Choice". National Security Archive, Suite 701, Gelman Library, The George Washington University.
31. ^ Ricklefs (1991), pages 237 – 280
32. ^ Friend (2003), pages 107–109; Chris Hilton (writer and director). (2001). Shadowplay. [Television documentary]. Vagabond Films and Hilton Cordell Productions. ; Ricklefs (1991), pages 280–283, 284, 287–290
33. ^ John Roosa and Joseph Nevins (5 November 2005). "40 Years Later: The Mass Killings in Indonesia". CounterPunch. http://www.counterpunch.org/roosa11052005.html. Retrieved 12 November 2006. ; Robert Cribb (2002). "Unresolved Problems in the Indonesian Killings of 1965–1966". Asian Survey 42 (4): 550–563. doi:10.1525/as.2002.42.4.550. 
34. ^ John D. Legge (1968). "General Suharto's New Order". Royal Institute of International Affairs 44 (1): 40–47. http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0020-5850%28196801%2944%3A1%3C40%3AGSNO%3E2.0.CO%3B2-I. 
35. ^ US National Archives, RG 59 Records of Department of State; cable no. 868, ref: Embtel 852, 5 October 1965. [1]^{[dead link]}; Adrian Vickers, A History of Modern Indonesia. Cambridge University Press, p. 163; 2005; David Slater, Geopolitics and the Post-Colonial: Rethinking North-South Relations, London: Blackwell, p. 70
36. ^ Vickers, Adrian (2005). A History of Modern Indonesia. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-54262-6. ; Schwarz, A. (1994). A Nation in Waiting: Indonesia in the 1990s. Westview Press. ISBN 1-86373-635-2. ; Ricklefs, M. C. (1991). A History of Modern Indonesia since c.1300, Second Edition. MacMillan. ISBN 0-333-57689-6. 
37. ^ Delhaise, Philippe F. (1998). Asia in Crisis: The Implosion of the Banking and Finance Systems. Willey. p. 123. ISBN 0-471-83450-5. 
38. ^ "President Suharto resigns". BBC. 21 May 1998. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/events/indonesia/latest_news/97848.stm. Retrieved 12 November 2006. 
39. ^ Burr, W.; Evans, M.L. (6 December 2001). "Ford and Kissinger Gave Green Light to Indonesia's Invasion of East Timor, 1975: New Documents Detail Conversations with Suharto". National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book No. 62. National Security Archive, The George Washington University, Washington, DC. http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB62/. Retrieved 17 September 2006. ; "International Religious Freedom Report". Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor. U.S. Department of State. 17 October 2002. http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2002/13873.htm. Retrieved 29 September 2006. 
40. ^ Robert W. Hefner (2000). "Religious Ironies in East Timor". Religion in the News 3 (1). http://www.trincoll.edu/depts/csrpl/RINVol3No1/east_timor.htm. Retrieved 12 December 2006. 
41. ^ "Aceh rebels sign peace agreement". BBC. 15 August 2005. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/4151980.stm. Retrieved 12 December 2006. 
42. ^ In 1998, 1999, 2000 and 2001
43. ^ ^{a b} Susi Dwi Harijanti and Tim Lindsey (2006). "Indonesia: General elections test the amended Constitution and the new Constitutional Court". International Journal of Constitutional Law 4 (1): 138–150. doi:10.1093/icon/moi055. 
44. ^ The Carter Center (2004). "The Carter Center 2004 Indonesia Election Report" (PDF). Press release. http://www.cartercenter.org/documents/2161.pdf. Retrieved 13 December 2006. 
45. ^ _ (2002), The fourth Amendment of 1945 Indonesia Constitution, Chapter III – The Executive Power, Art. 7.
46. ^ (Indonesian) People's Consultative Assembly (MPR-RI) (PDF). Ketetapan MPR-RI Nomor II/MPR/2000 tentang Perubahan Kedua Peraturan Tata Tertib Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat Republik Indonesia. http://www.mpr.go.id/pdf/ketetapan/putusan%20MPRRI%202000.pdf. Retrieved 7 November 2006. 
47. ^ ^{a b c d} "Background Note: Indonesia". U.S. Library of Congress. U.S. Department of State. http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2748.htm. Retrieved 26 November 2009. 
48. ^ Reforms include total control of statutes production without executive branch interventions; all members are now elected (reserved seats for military representatives have now been removed); and the introduction of fundamental rights exclusive to the DPR. (see Harijanti and Lindsey 2006)
49. ^ Based on the 2001 constitution amendment, the DPD comprises four popularly elected non-partisan members from each of the thirty-three provinces for national political representation. People's Consultative Assembly (MPR-RI) (PDF). Third Amendment to the 1945 Constitution of The Republic of Indonesia. Archived from the original on December 1, 2006. http://web.archive.org/web/20061201025250/http://www.gtzsfdm.or.id/documents/laws_n_regs/con_decree/3_AmdUUD45_eng.pdf. Retrieved 13 December 2006. 
50. ^ ^{a b} "Country Profile: Indonesia" (PDF). U.S Library of Congress. December 2004. http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/Indonesia.pdf. Retrieved 9 December 2006. 
51. ^ "Indonesia – Foreign Policy". U.S. Library of Congress. U.S. Library of Congress. http://countrystudies.us/indonesia/97.htm. Retrieved 5 May 2007. 
52. ^ Indonesia temporarily withdrew from the UN on 20 January 1965 in response to the fact that Malaysia was elected as a non-permanent member of the Security Council. It announced its intention to "resume full cooperation with the United Nations and to resume participation in its activities" on 19 September 1966, and was invited to re-join the UN on 28 September 1966.
53. ^ Chris Wilson (11 October 2001). "Indonesia and Transnational Terrorism". Foreign Affairs, Defense and Trade Group. Parliament of Australia. http://www.aph.gov.au/library/pubs/CIB/2001-02/02cib06.htm. Retrieved 15 October 2006. ; Reyko Huang (23 May 2002). "Priority Dilemmas: U.S. – Indonesia Military Relations in the Anti Terror War". Terrorism Project. Center for Defense Information. http://www.cdi.org/terrorism/priority.cfm. 
54. ^ "Commemoration of 3rd anniversary of bombings". AAP. Melbourne: The Age Newspaper. 10 December 2006. http://www.theage.com.au/news/war-on-terror/services-to-honour-victims-of-2002-bali-bombing/2005/10/12/1128796537208.html. 
55. ^ US Embassy, Jakarta (10 May 2005). "Travel Warning: Indonesia". Press release. Archived from the original on November 11, 2006. http://web.archive.org/web/20061111230327/http://www.usembassyjakarta.org/news/trv_warning02.html. Retrieved 26 December 2006. 
56. ^ Chew, Amy (7 July 2002). "Indonesia military regains ground". CNN Asia. http://edition.cnn.com/2002/WORLD/asiapcf/southeast/07/05/indonesia.sutarto/index.html. Retrieved 24 April 2007. 
57. ^ Witular, Rendi A. (19 May 2005). "Susilo Approves Additional Military Funding". The Jakarta Post. http://www.etan.org/et2005/may/22/19susilo.htm. Retrieved 24 April 2007. 
58. ^ Friend (2003), pages 473–475, 484
59. ^ Friend (2003), pages 270–273, 477–480; "Indonesia flashpoints: Aceh". BBC News (BBC). 29 December 2005. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/3809079.stm. Retrieved 20 May 2007. 
60. ^ "Indonesia agrees Aceh peace deal". BBC News (BBC). 17 July 2005. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/4690293.stm. Retrieved 20 May 2007. ; Harvey, Rachel (18 September 2005). "Indonesia starts Aceh withdrawal". BBC News (BBC). http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/4257944.stm. Retrieved 20 May 2007. 
61. ^ Lateline TV Current Affairs (20 April 2006). "Sidney Jones on South East Asian conflicts". TV Program transcript, Interview with South East Asia director of the International Crisis Group (Australian Broadcasting Commission (ABC)). Archived from the original on September 18, 2006. http://web.archive.org/web/20060918233640/http://www.crisisgroup.org/library/documents/asia/indonesia/b53_papua_answers_to_frequently_asked_questions.pdf. ; International Crisis Group (5 September 2006). "Papua: Answer to Frequently Asked Questions" (PDF). Update Briefing (International Crisis Group) (53): 1. Archived from the original on September 18, 2006. http://web.archive.org/web/20060918233640/http://www.crisisgroup.org/library/documents/asia/indonesia/b53_papua_answers_to_frequently_asked_questions.pdf. Retrieved 17 September 2006. 
62. ^ Michelle Ann Miller (2004). "The Nanggroe Aceh Darussalam law: a serious response to Acehnese separatism?". Asian Ethnicity 5 (3): 333–351. doi:10.1080/1463136042000259789. http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/routledg/caet/2004/00000005/00000003/art00005. 
63. ^ The positions of governor and its vice governor are prioritized for descendants of the Sultan of Yogyakarta and Paku Alam, respectively, much like a sultanate. (Elucidation on the Indonesia Law No. 22/1999 Regarding Regional Governance. People's Representative Council (1999). Chapter XIV Other Provisions, Art. 122; Indonesia Law No. 5/1974 Concerning Basic Principles on Administration in the RegionPDF (146 KB) (translated version). The President of Republic of Indonesia (1974). Chapter VII Transitional Provisions, Art. 91)
64. ^ As part of the autonomy package was the introduction of the Papuan People's Council tasked with arbitration and speaking on behalf of Papuan tribal customs, however, the implementation of the autonomy measures has been criticized as half-hearted and incomplete. Dursin, Richel; Kafil Yamin (18 November 2004). "Another Fine Mess in Papua". Editorial (The Jakarta Post). http://www.infid.be/papua_mess.htm. Retrieved 5 October 2006. ; "Papua Chronology Confusing Signals from Jakarta". The Jakarta Post. 18 November 2004. http://www.infid.be/papua_mess.htm#Papua%20Chronology%20Confusing%20Signals%20from%20Jakarta. Retrieved 5 October 2006. 
65. ^ International Monetary Fund (April 2006). "World Economic Outlook Database". Press release. http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2006/01/data/dbcoutm.cfm?SD=2005&ED=2005&R1=1&R2=1&CS=3&SS=2&OS=C&DD=0&OUT=1&C=536&S=PPPWGT-PPPPC&RequestTimeout=120&CMP=0&x=45&y=5. Retrieved 5 October 2006. ; "Indonesia Regions". Indonesia Business Directory. http://www.indonext.com/Regions/. Retrieved 24 April 2007. 
66. ^ Witton, Patrick (2003). Indonesia. Melbourne: Lonely Planet. pp. 139, 181, 251, 435. ISBN 1-74059-154-2. 
67. ^ Central Intelligence Agency (17 October 2006). "Rank Order Area". The World Factbook. US CIA, Washington, DC. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2147rank.html. Retrieved 3 November 2006. 
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69. ^ Calder, Joshua (3 May 2006). "Most Populous Islands". World Island Information. http://www.worldislandinfo.com/POPULATV2.htm. Retrieved 26 September 2006. 
70. ^ "Republic of Indonesia". Republic of Indonesia. Microsoft. 2006. http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761573214/Republic_of_Indonesia.html#s4. 
71. ^ "Volcanoes of Indonesia". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution. http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/region.cfm?rnum=06&rpage=list. Retrieved 25 March 2007. 
72. ^ "The Human Toll". UN Office of the Special Envoy for Tsunami Recovery. United Nations. Archived from the original on 19 May 2007. http://web.archive.org/web/20070519133441/http://www.tsunamispecialenvoy.org/country/humantoll.asp. Retrieved 25 March 2007. 
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76. ^ "Indonesia's Natural Wealth: The Right of a Nation and Her People". Islam Online. 22 May 2003. Archived from the original on 2006-10-17. http://web.archive.org/web/20061017034459/http://www.islamonline.net/English/Science/2003/05/article13.shtml. Retrieved 6 October 2006. 
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83. ^ ^{a b} Jason R. Miller (30 January 1997). Deforestation in Indonesia and the Orangutan Population. TED Case Studies. http://www.american.edu/TED/orang.htm. Retrieved 14 August 2007. 
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85. ^ Massicot, Paul. "Animal Info – Indonesia". Animal Info – Information on Endangered Mammals. http://www.animalinfo.org/country/indones.htm. Retrieved 14 August 2007. 
86. ^ Economy of Indonesia, www.state.gov. Retrieved 2009-10-6.
87. ^ What is the G-20, www.g20.org. Retrieved 2009-10-6.
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89. ^ http://www.indexmundi.com/indonesia/economy_profile.html
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91. ^ https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/id.html
92. ^ By the time of Sukarno's downfall in the mid-1960s, the economy was in chaos with 1,000% annual inflation, shrinking export revenues, crumbling infrastructure, factories operating at minimal capacity, and negligible investment. Schwarz (1994), pages 52–57
93. ^ Schwarz (1994), pages 52–57
94. ^ averaging over 7% from 1968 to 1981. Schwarz (1994), pages 52–57
95. ^ Following a slowing of growth in the 1980s, due to over regulation and dependence on declining oil prices, growth slowed to an average of 4.3% per annum between 1981 and 1988. A range of economic reforms were introduced in the late 1980s. Reforms included a managed devaluation of the rupiah to improve export competitiveness, and de-regulation of the financial sector (Schwarz (1994), pages 52–57).
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99. ^ http://www.transparency.org/policy_research/surveys_indices/cpi/2003
100. ^ http://www.transparency.org/policy_research/surveys_indices/cpi/2010/results
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102. ^ "Poverty in Indonesia: Always with them". The Economist. 14 September 2006. Archived from the original on November 28, 2006. http://web.archive.org/web/20061128215856/http://www.thejakartapost.com/review/nat05.asp. Retrieved 26 December 2006.  (subsequent correction); Ridwan Max Sijabat (23 March 2007). "Unemployment still blighting the Indonesian landscape". The Jakarta Post. Archived from the original on November 28, 2006. http://web.archive.org/web/20061128215856/http://www.thejakartapost.com/review/nat05.asp. 
103. ^ World Bank (2006). "Making the New Indonesia Work for the Poor – Overview" (PDF). Press release. http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTINDONESIA/Resources/Publication/280016-1152870963030/2753486-1165385030085/Overview_standalone_en.pdf. Retrieved 26 December 2006. 
104. ^ [2]
105. ^ http://www.cemsonline.com/countryprofileindo.html
106. ^ International Monetary Fund
107. ^ http://www.bi.go.id/web/en/Publikasi/Kebijakan+Moneter/Tinjauan+Kebijakan+Moneter/mpr_tw410.htm
108. ^ http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/EASTASIAPACIFICEXT/INDONESIAEXTN/0,,contentMDK:21517996~pagePK:141137~piPK:141127~theSitePK:226309,00.html
109. ^ http://www.eastasiaforum.org/2010/09/25/indonesias-economy-continues-to-surprise/
110. ^ Calder, Joshua (3 May 2006). "Most Populous Islands". World Island Information. http://www.worldislandinfo.com/POPULATV2.htm. Retrieved 26 September 2006. 
111. ^ [World Population Prospects (2008) United Nations
112. ^ Taylor (2003), pages 5–7, Dawson, B.; Gillow, J. (1994). The Traditional Architecture of Indonesia. London: Thames and Hudson Ltd. p. 7. ISBN 0-500-34132-X. ; Witton, Patrick (2003). Indonesia. Melbourne: Lonely Planet. pp. 139, 181, 251, 435. ISBN 1-74059-154-2. 
113. ^ "An Overview of Indonesia". Living in Indonesia, A Site for Expatriates. Expat Web Site Association. http://www.expat.or.id/info/overview.html. Retrieved 5 October 2006. ; Merdekawaty, E. (6 July 2006). ""Bahasa Indonesia" and languages of Indonesia" (PDF). UNIBZ – Introduction to Linguistics. Free University of Bozen. http://www.languagestudies.unibz.it/Bahasa%20Indonesia_Merdekawaty.pdf. Retrieved 17 July 2006. 
114. ^ Kingsbury, Damien (2003). Autonomy and Disintegration in Indonesia. Routledge. p. 131. ISBN 0-415-29737-0. 
115. ^ Small but significant populations of ethnic Chinese, Indians, Europeans and Arabs are concentrated mostly in urban areas.
116. ^ Ricklefs (1991), page 256
117. ^ Domestic migration (including the official Transmigrasi program) are a cause of violence such as the massacre of hundreds of Madurese by a local Dayak community in West Kalimantan, and conflicts in Maluku, Central Sulawesi, and parts of Papua and West Papua T.N. Pudjiastuti (2002) (PDF). Migration & Conflict in Indonesia. International Union for the Scientific Study of Population (IUSSP), Paris. http://www.iussp.org/Bangkok2002/S15Pudjiastuti.pdf. Retrieved 17 September 2006. ; "Kalimantan The Conflict". Program on Humanitarian Policy and Conflict Research. Conflict Prevention Initiative, Harvard University. http://www.preventconflict.org/portal/main/maps_kalimantan_conflict.php. Retrieved 7 January 2007. ; J.W. Ajawaila; M.J. Papilaya; Tonny D. Pariela; F. Nahusona; G. Leasa; T. Soumokil; James Lalaun and W. R. Sihasale (1999). "Proposal Pemecahan Masalah Kerusuhan di Ambon". Report on Church and Human Rights Persecution in Indonesia. Ambon, Indonesia: Fica-Net. http://www.fica.org/h/ambon/idRusuh1.html. Retrieved 29 September 2006. ; Kyoto University: Sulawesi Kaken Team & Center for Southeast Asian Studies Bugis SailorsPDF (124 KB)
118. ^ Johnston notes that less than 1% of the country's 210 million inhabitants described themselves as ethnic Chinese. Many sociologists regard this as a serious underestimate: they believe that somewhere between six million and seven million people of Chinese descent are now living in Indonesia. The Republic of China (Taiwan)'s Overseas Compatriot Affairs Commission gives a figure of 7,776,000, including 207,000 of Taiwan origin; see Statistical Yearbook, Taipai: Overseas Compatriot Affairs Commission, 2007, pp. 11–13, ISSN 1024-4374. Retrieved 2010-09-30.
119. ^ Schwarz (1994), pages 53, 80–81; Friend (2003), pages 85–87, 164–165, 233–237
120. ^ M. F. Swasono (1997). "Indigenous Cultures in the Development of Indonesia". Integration of endogenous cultural dimension into development. Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts, New Delhi. http://ignca.nic.in/cd_05008.htm. Retrieved 17 September 2006. ; "The Overseas Chinese". Prospect Magazine. 9 April 1998. http://www.prospect-magazine.co.uk/article_details.php?id=4212. Retrieved 17 September 2006. ^{[dead link]} The riots in Jakarta in 1998—much of which were aimed at the Chinese—were, in part, expressions of this resentment. M. Ocorandi (28 May 1998). "An Analysis of the Implication of Suharto's resignation for Chinese Indonesians". Worldwide HuaRen Peace Mission. http://www.hartford-hwp.com/archives/54b/083.html. Retrieved 26 September 2006. ; F.H. Winarta (August 2004). "Bhinneka Tunggal Ika Belum Menjadi Kenyataan Menjelang HUT Kemerdekaan RI Ke-59" (in Indonesian). Komisi Hukum Nasional Republik Indonesia (National Law Commission, Republic of Indonesia), Jakarta. http://ignca.nic.in/cd_05008.htm. 
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123. ^ taalunieversum
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125. ^ Yang, Heriyanto (August 2005). "The History and Legal Position of Confucianism in Post Independence Indonesia" (PDF). Religion 10 (1): 8. http://web.uni-marburg.de/religionswissenschaft/journal/mjr/pdf/2005/yang2005.pdf. Retrieved 2 October 2006. 
126. ^ Oey, Eric (1997). Bali (3rd ed.). Singapore: Periplus Editions. ISBN 962-593-028-0 
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128. ^ "Indonesia – Islam". U.S. Library of Congress. http://countrystudies.us/indonesia/37.htm. Retrieved 15 October 2006. 
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130. ^ Ricklefs (1991), pp.28, 62; Vickers (2005), p.22; Goh, Robbie B.H. (2005). Christianity in Southeast Asia. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. p. 80. ISBN 981-230-297-2. 
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[edit] References

• Friend, T. (2003). Indonesian Destinies. Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-01137-6. 
• Ricklefs, M. C. (1991). A History of Modern Indonesia since c.1300, Second Edition. MacMillan. ISBN 0-333-57689-6. 
• Schwarz, A. (1994). A Nation in Waiting: Indonesia in the 1990s. Westview Press. ISBN 1-86373-635-2. 
• Taylor, Jean Gelman (2003). Indonesia: Peoples and Histories. New Haven and London: Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-10518-5. 
• Vickers, Adrian (2005). A History of Modern Indonesia. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-54262-6. 

[edit] External links

Find more about Indonesia on Wikipedia's sister projects:
	Definitions from Wiktionary
	Images and media from Commons
	Learning resources from Wikiversity
	News stories from Wikinews
	Quotations from Wikiquote
	Source texts from Wikisource
	Textbooks from Wikibooks

Government

• Government of Indonesia
• Minister of The State Secretary (Indonesian)
• Antara – National News Agency
• Statistics Center
• Chief of State and Cabinet Members

General information

• Indonesia entry at The World Factbook
• Indonesia from UCB Libraries GovPubs
• Indonesia at the Open Directory Project
• Wikimedia Atlas of Indonesia
• Indonesia travel guide from Wikitravel